What is LVDT ? AND How LVDT works? | Electrical Measurement Theory

What is LVDT ? AND How LVDT works? |  Electrical Measurement Theory

The theory of LVDT  is provided in this article in detailed knowledge. Working principle of LVDT and How LVDT works are explained in detail in this article. This theory is more important for get knowledge about electrical measurement.

LVDT stands for Linear Variable Differential Transformer.

LVDT is a passive inductive transducer and
commonly employed to measure force or weight.

Pressure and acceleration etc. which depend on force in terms of the amount and direction of displacement of an object.

Construction

Construction of LVDT is shown in below figure which is more helpful for understanding.

What is LVDT ? AND How LVDT works? |  Electrical Measurement Theory

It consists of one primary winding P and two secondary windings S1 and  S2
which are placed on either side of the
primary mounted on the same magnetic core.

The magnetic core is free to move axially
inside the coil assembly and the motion being measured is mechanically coupled to it.

The two secondary's S1 and S2 have equal number of turns but are connected in series
opposition so that e.m.fs.(E1 and E2) induced in them are 180 out of phase with each
other and, hence, cancel  each other out.

The primary is energized from a suitable A.C. source.

Working

When the core is in the center called reference position the induced voltages E1 and E2 are equal and opposite. Hence they cancel out and the output voltage Vo is zero.

When the external applied force moves the core towards coil S2, E2 is increased but E1 is
decreased in magnitude though they are still antiphase with each other.

The net voltage available is(E2-E1) and is in phase with D2.

Similarly, when the magnetic core moves towards coil S1,E1>E2 and Vo = E1- E2 and is in
phase with E1.

Thus, we find that the magnitude of Vo is a function of the distance improved by the core and its polarity or phase indicates as to in which direction it has moved.

If core is attached to a moving object, the magnitude of Vo gives the position of that object.

What is the Neutral Earthing? And Advantages of Neutral Earthing

What is the Neutral Earthling? And Advantages of Neutral Earthling

The theory of neutral earthling is provided in this article which more helpful to clear basic fundamentals of earthling and neutral earthling, all the details are described below.

What is the Neutral Earthling? And Advantages of Neutral Earthling

Neutral Earthing is also known as neutral grounding.

These days, the majority of 3-phase systems operate with an earthed neutral, earthling being achieved either directly or through an impedance.

Advantages of Neutral Earthling

✓Elimination of persistent arcing ground

✓It provides improved service reliability.

✓Earth faults can be utilized to operate protective relays to isolate the fault.

✓Surge voltage due to arcing grounds is eliminated.

✓This system gives reliable service and greater safety to personnel and equipment.

✓It provides greater safety to personnel and equipment.

✓Maintenance and operating cost of such system, as compared to isolated systems, is less.

✓Voltages of phases are limited to the line-to-ground voltages.

✓The voltage of healthy phases remains nearly constant.

Methods of Neutral Earthling

The following methods are employed to earth the neutral of the power system:

✓Solid earthing usually confined to systems operating at voltage below 2.2 kV and above 33 kV.

✓Resistance earthing usually employed for the system operating at voltages between 2.2 kV and 33 kV when the power source capacity exceeds 5000 kVA.

✓Reactance earthing, this system ensures satisfactory relaying partial grading of the

apparatus insulation, reduced interference to neighboring communication circuits as compared with that in solidly earthed system.

✓Its main drawback is very high transient over voltages due to which this system is not in common use.

✓Arc suppression coil or Peterson coil earthing usually confined to 'medium voltage

overhead transmission lines which are connected to generating source through intervening power transformers.

Different Methods Of Neutral Grounding : 

• Solid grounding
• Resistance Grounding
• Reactance Grounding
• Peterson-coil grounding 

Function and Classification Of Substation

Function and Classification Of Substation

Here, In this article, the main function of substation and classification of substation is given  below, which is more helpful in field work.

Function and Classification Of Substation

Functions Of Substation

The main functions of substations are to receive energy transmitted at high voltage from the generating stations, reduce the voltage to a value appropriate for local distribution and provide facilities for switching.

Classification Substation

According to service

∆Transformer substations

∆Industrial substations

∆Switching substations

∆Power factor correction

∆Frequency changer substations

∆Converting substations.

According to design

1.Indoor type substations

2.Outdoor substations

         (i)Pole mounted substations

         (ii)Foundation mounted substations.

Equipment for Substations and Switchgear Installations

The main equipment for substations and switchgear is mentioned below.

✓Main bus-bars

✓Insulators

✓Isolators

✓Circuit breakers

✓Load-interrupter switches

✓Fuses

✓Power transformers

✓Current and potential transformers

✓Indicating and metering instruments

✓Protective relays

✓Carrier-current equipment

✓Control cables.

Phase Angle Control | Principle Of Phase Angle Control

Phase Angle Control  |  Principle Of Phase Angle Control

In integral cycle control method, the output voltage can e controlled by opening and closing
the switch for one or several half cycles of the ac input voltage.

Phase Angle Control  |  Principle Of Phase Angle Control

Whereas in phase controlled switching, the output voltage is controlled by opening and
closing the switch between a cycle.


 i.e., switching device is so operated that the source and load gets connected for a part of each half cycle of the input voltage.



The principle of operation of phase control can be explained by considering the circuit
diagram as shown in  below figure

Principle of  phase angle Control

Thermistor T is forward biased during positive half cycle, s turned ON at firing angle alpha and will remain ON till wt=π  for resistive load.


During the period of thyristor load voltage becomes Vm sin (alpha)  and load current becomes Vm sin (alpha) / R  as shown in below Figure.

Waveforms of single phase half wave ac voltage controller

During negative half cycle,  from wt = π to 2π,  thyristor gets turned OFF and diode
D becomes forward based.


As a result diode D starts conducting during negative half cycle. It can be noted that only
positive cycle can be controlled whereas negative half cycle cannot.


Therefore, this circuit configuration is referred as single phase half wave voltage controller or 1 phase unidirectional voltage controller.


The undesirable de component is introduced in the load and supply circuits because the
positive and negative cycles are not identical for voltage and current waveforms as shown
in upper figure.

Advantages of phase angle control

Here only one source is required so control is very simple.

Disadvantages of Phase Angle Control

The output voltage waveform is not fully controlled.

Supply current, output current and voltage are in dc component.

Application of Phase Angle Control

Used in lighting and heating application.

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What is Insulating Material? | Electrical Safety Theory

What is Insulating Material? |  Electrical Safety Theory

Insulation is more important part of wire or cable which is protect cable outer surface from environmental impurities and which is provide mechanical strength of cable

What is Insulating Material? |  Electrical Safety Theory

Electrical insulating materials' are defined as materials which offer a very large resistance to flow of current, and for that reason they are used to keep the current in its proper path along the conductor.

Thermoplastic materials 'are those which soften on the application of heat, with or without pressure but they require cooling to set them to shape.

Thermosetting materials 'are those plastics which require heat and pressure to

mold them into shape.

Insulating varnishes 'are generally classified according to composition as “oil varnishes” and “spirit varnishes".

The electrical insulating films comprise a group of thin flexible insulating materials made from various polymers.

The function of insulating liquids is to provide electrical insulation and heat transfer.

Transformer oil serves two purposes:

(1)It transfers heat by convection from winding and core to the cooling surfaces.

(2)It maintains the insulation of the windings.

Presence of even a trace of water in transformer oil reduces its insulation strength

considerably.

'Sludge' formation produces the following effects:

(1)Rate of heat transfer is reduced.

(2)Ducts are clogged.

(3)Increase in operating temperature results.

The various tests which are carried out on transformer oil are given below:

(1)Moisture test

(2)Acidity test

(3)Sludge resistance test

(4)Electric strength test

If the gas is used in applications under high pressure 'which may cause liquefaction, chemical instability and corrosion problem may be encountered.

Therefore insulating gases are normally used under conditions such that the liquefaction of gas does not occur.

Insulation resistance is the resistance between two conductors(or systems of conductors) usually separated by insulating materials.

It is the total resistance in respect of two

parallel paths, one through the body and other over the surface of the body.

The potential gradient at which breakdown occurs is termed as dielectric strength.

Dielectric constant(Permittivity)is the ratio of the electric flux density in the material to that produced in free space by the same electric force.

What is Electrical Welding? | Different Types of Welding

What is Electrical Welding? |  Different Types of Welding 

Electrical welding :

Electrical welding is basic general theory for all electrical engineer, so practical knowledge of electrical welding is also necessary. This theory is also important in all examination.

What is Electrical Welding? |  Different Types of Welding 

Integral Cycle Control or Principle Of On Off Control

Integral Cycle Control or Principle Of On Off Control

Integral Cycle Control or Principle Of On Off Control

In On-Off control, the thyristor is triggered for some input cycles, i.e, on period (Ton) and

remains un triggered for certain input cycle, i.e. off period (Tuff).

In on period, we get output same as that of input while in off period as the name indicates

we get no output or we can say zero voltage.

Such type of controls are used for temperature or other high time constant type systems

where on/off control does not cause fluctuation in system performance.

For e.g. In such applications no variation in temperature or speed will be observed if

control is obtained by connecting the load to source for on-cycles and then disconnecting

the load from source for off-cycles.

This type of power control consists of an integral number of cycles for the on-time (Ton)

and then switching off the supply for a further number of integral cycles, so it is also

referred to as integral cycle control.

Integral cycle control is also known as burst firing, zero-voltage switching, cycle selection

or cycle syncopation.

The principle of On-Off cycle control can be explained by referring to Fig as shown below.

Principle of on-off control or integral Cycle Control

In upper figure all the thyristor are triggered at the zero crossing instant of the input wave only.

When we apply gate pulse then the source get connected to the load and we get same output as like input.

The waveforms of integral Cycle Control is shown in below graph.

Waveforms of integral Cycle Control

Advantages of Integral Cycle Control

• Less maintenance is required

• Harmonics are reduced due to switching action.

• Simple control

Disadvantages of integral Cycle Control

• Switching period is charged due to harmonics

• The load voltage is not smooth.

• In line current, it introduces sub harmonics, so this type of control is not popular.

Application of Integral Cycle Control

• Speed control of motors.

• Industrial heating.

Single Phase AC Voltage Controller | Power Electronics Theory

Single Phase AC Voltage Controller  |  Power Electronics Theory

There are various configurations of ac regulator, out of which four different types are shown in all below images. Circuit shown in below first figure consists of two thyristor connected in parallel in opposite direction.

Single Phase AC Voltage Controller  |  Power Electronics Theory

To avoid the contacts of two cathodes together, the trigger source for the two thyristors
must be isolated from one another, otherwise the thyristors would be out of circuit.


Thus, controlling of output voltage would not be possible: In place of two thyristors, one
trial can be used as shown in below figure.

Single Phase AC voltage control using TRIAC

This configuration is applicable for the applications of low power i.., in this cases where the load is resistive or has only a small inductance, while if load impedance angle is high then this is not suitable.


Below figure shows the single-phase full-wave voltage controller consisting of two thyristor
(T and T2 and two diodes (Di and D2).

Single Phase AC voltage control using Diodes

As both the cathodes are connected together, no isolation circuit is required between the gates and control circuit. During the positive half cycle T1 and D1 conducts whereas during the negative half cycle T2 and D2 conducts.


Below image shows a configuration which consists of bridge rectifier and only one thyristor. In this configuration isolation of gate circuit is not needed.

Single Phase AC Voltage control using bridge rectifier

As a result, this scheme gives a cheap ac voltage controller. For better controllability of any type of load , transistor or MOSFET can be used in place of thyristor.

Matrix Converter | Basic Principle Of Matrix Converter !!

Matrix Converter | Basic Principle Of Matrix Converter !!

Principle:

The matrix converter uses the matrix of switches so that any of the input phase voltage

can be connected to any of the output load phase. There is exactly one switch for each

of the possible connections between supply and load.

Circuit diagram and operation:

*A shown in this circuit diagram, Sp. S and SB, are the switches that connect any of
the input to load phase r.

*Similarly the switches SR Sby and Sbb connect any of the input to load phase yb. And
the switches SR S and S connect any of the input to load phase b.

*The input LC filter is used to eliminate harmonic currents in the input side.

*T29 = 512 combinations but only 9 combinations are used.

Circuit diagram of matrix converter

*The switches are controlled in such a way that there is no short circuit of the input supply

The load voltages v, vy, v are related to supply voltages VR Vy and V by following

matrix equation,

The maximum voltage transfer ratio is 0.866

Advantages :

1. Inherent bidirectional power flow control

2. Input-output waveforms are sinusoidal.

3. No dc-link is required, hence it is compact

4. Power factor is controlled by independent control of load current

Disadvantages:

1. The switches are not available for high powers

2. Implementation is complex.

3.The maximum voltage transfer ratio is limited

4. The switches required protection and commutation circuit which makes the converter

bully.

Applications:

1. Matrix converters are used for low power 3-phase AC controllers.

2. It is used for power factor control.

Matrix converters are defined by sinusoidal waveforms that show the input and output switching frequencies. 

So, The three methods of matrix converter control :

Space vector modulation

Pulse width modulation

Analysis of function transfer

So, this is all basic of matrix converter. I hope this will help !!

What is AC voltage controller? | Advantages, Disadvantages and Application Of AC voltage controller

What is AC voltage controller?  |  Advantages, Disadvantages and Application Of AC voltage controller

AC Voltage Controller :

AC voltage controllers are thyristor based devices which converter fixed alternating voltage into variable alternating voltage directly without change in frequency.

To obtain the desired performance of Electrical system ac voltage controlled.

Block diagram of ac voltage controller is shown in below image 👇

Block Diagram of AC voltage controller

If a thyristor switch is connected between ac supply and load, the power flows controlled  by varying r.m.s value of ac voltage applied to the load.

The ac voltage level can also be changed by tap-changing transformers, magnetic amplifiers, etc.


Now, thyristor and Trial ac regulators have replaced them in most of the applications because of compact size, fast control, high efficiency etc.


However, ac regulators using thyristors  and TRIAC introduce objectionable harmonics in the circuit.

Advantages

1. These having high efficiency.

2. Losses are less

3. Simple in circuit configuration.

4. It requires less maintenance.

5. These are compact in size

Disadvantages

1. The load current is not pure sinusoidal in phase control.

2 Harmonics are present in load current.

3. The value of voltage is sharply changed due to phase angle control.

Applications of AC voltage controllers

1. Speed control of poly phase AC motors.

2. ON load transformer tap changing

3. For industrial heating.

4. For starting of induction motor.

5. Fan control

6. Electrical welding.

Types of AC voltage converters:

The ac voltage controllers can be single phase or three phase And it can be unidirectional or bidirectional. So, the types of AC Voltage converters are,

Single Phase ac voltage controller  :

(1) Single Phase Unidirectional (half wave controller)

(2) Single Phase Bidirectional (Full wave controller)

Three Phase ac voltage controllers :

(1) Three Phase Unidirectional (half wave controller)

(2) Three Phase Bidirectional (Full wave controller)

What is Inverter?? And Classification of Inverter !!

What is Inverter?? And Classification of Inverter !!

Definition:

Inverter is device which converts DC power to AC power at a certain output voltage and frequency or at a certain current level and frequency. 

Main Two parts of Inverter :

Here is two main parts of Current source inverter and Voltage source inverter.

Current Source Inverter  − A current source inverter is supplied with a variable current from a DC source that has high impedance. The resulting current waves are not influenced by the load.

Voltage Source Inverter - The voltage source inverter has stiff DC source voltage that is the DC voltage has limited or zero impedance at the inverter input terminals. 

What is Inverter?? And Classification of Inverter !!

Electrical power is generally transmitted and used in the form of alternating current.


The inverter is the circuit which converts a dc power to ac power at desired output voltage and frequency. The AC output voltage could be set a fixed or variable frequency.

Block Diagram of Inverter

The basic block diagram of Inverter is shown in below image...

Block Diagram of Inverter

Classification of Inverter

Inverter are classified according to different points which will be mentioned below:

According to the Nature of Voltage

Inverters can be broadly classified into two types

(1) Voltage source inverters (VSI) and

(2) Current source inverters (CSI)


A voltage source inverter (VSI) has the dc source which have small impedance.  Whenever a current source inverter (CSI) have high impedance.

According to the Connections :

Inverters are classified into three types

(1) Series Inverters

(2) Parallel Inverters

(3) Bridge Inverters

According to Number of Phases :

(1) Single Phase Inverters

(2) Three Phase Inverters

Applications of Inverters

(1) Industrial application

(2) Induction heating

(3) Stand by supplies providing for Aircrafts, ship-boards.

(4) Uninterrupted power supplies (UPS)

(5) HVDC transmission lines.

Operation and Phasor Diagram of IDEAL Transformer !!!

Operation and Phasor Diagram of IDEAL Transformer !!! 

Operation and Phasor Diagram of IDEAL Transformer !!!

IDEAL TRANSFORMER :

The transformer, in which no energy is wasted in the core and in the winding is called

the ideal transformer.

An ideal transformer is an imaginary transformer which has the following properties.

(1) Its primary and secondary winding resistances are negligible.

(2) The core has infinite permeability (u).

(3) Its leakage flux and leakage inductances are zero.

(4) There are no losses.

(5) The working efficiency is 100%.

Operation and Phasor Diagram 

An ideal transformer is shown in below image. It consists of two coils. The winding connected

to the supply (V1) is called the primary winding. The winding connected to the load is

called the secondary winding.

Ideal Transformer

Since the ideal transformer has zero primary and zero secondary impedance, the voltage

induced in the primary E, is equal to the applied voltage V1.

Similarly, the secondary voltage V2 is equal to the secondary induced voltage E2.

When the primary winding connected to the supply, the primary draws the magnetizing

current Im only.

The alternating currents Im produces an alternating flux m which is in Same phase with Im.

This changing flux  is linked both with the primary and the secondary windings. 

Therefore it  self-induced e.m.f. in the primary. This self-induced e.m.f. E is at every instant,

equal and opposite to V1. The magnetizing current Im lags V1 by 90°.

E1  =  -V1 and  E2 = V2 

Flux also links with secondary winding and induces emf E2 in it. This emf lags 90° behind flux. Below shows the vector diagram.

Vector Diagram of Practical Transformer

Four Quadrants Operation Of Electrical Drive With Simple Diagram

Four Quadrants Operation Of Electrical Drive With Simple Diagram

The theory four quadrant operation of electrical drive is more important and necessary for before learning of electrical drive and electrical machine control.

Four Quadrant Operation Of Electrical Drive 

The name suggest the operation is done in all four quadrant. There is a different operation in all the four quadrant. All the operations are explain below in very simple language so all are easily understand this operation.

1. 

Quadrant 1

Operation : Forward Motoring

2.

Quadrant 2

Operation : Forward Braking 

3.

Quadrant 3

Operation : Reverse Motoring

4.

Quadrant 4

Operation : Reverse Braking

So that type of motoring and braking operations are done in four quadrant.

Now we can learn all the quadrant operation by using example of hoist.

Consider A simple hoist mechanism like that below image 👇

Four Quadrants Operation Of Electrical Drive With Simple Diagram

If we show in upper image than we saw that when motor rotate in anticlockwise direction than the motor is lift the hoist cage in upper direction.

Now let assume,

Tm = Torque of Motor

TL  = Torque of Load 

W(omega) = angular velocity

The four quadrant operation using hoist mechanism is shown in below figure.

Four Quadrants Operation Of Electrical Drive With Simple Diagram

Now we learn explanation of operation of hoist mechanism in all the four quadrant.

Quadrant 1 

In this quadrant Tm (torque) and W ( angular velocity) are both positive. So by power equation

P = T W 

Power will be positive.

Here, P is the power.

           T is the torque

           W is the angular speed


Means we tell that the drive received power from the supply and power will be positive.

This type of operation is known as forward motoring action in forward direction. So by using this power the hoist cage is lifted and electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy.

You can see this operation in upper figure and easily understand this operation.

Quadrant 2 


In this quadrant Tm (torque) is negative and W (angular velocity) is positive. So by power equation,

P = (- T ) W   

Power will be negative.

Means power is delivered to the source from the motor, This operation is also known as regenerative braking.

So, In this operation, the hoist cage is empty and due to gravitational force counter weight is goes down.



Quadrant 3


In this quadrant both Tm and L are negative. So all over power is make positive by power equation

P = (- Tm) ( -W )

So power will be positive.

This operation is called motoring operation in opposite direction and also known as reverse motoring.



Quadrant 4


In this quadrant Tm ( torque ) is positive and W ( angular velocity ) is negative.

So by power equation,

P = Tm ( - W )

So power will be negative.

It's operation is also called regenerative braking in reverse direction.

Safety Precautions Against Electricity || Electrical Protection And Safety

Safety Precautions Against Electricity || Electrical Protection And Safety  

Protection and safety is first and foremost thing for all electrical engineer. So, there many safety precautions are provided in below. 

Safety Precautions Against Electricity || Electrical Protection And Safety 

Safety Precautions Against Electricity points are shown below:

(1) The electric shocks are usually received and can be easily avoided by being careful.

(2) A great care should be taken against electric shock while working on the line whether its conductor is insulated or bared.

(3) Never work with bare feet. It is better to wear rubber shoes while working.

(4) In case of electric shock, when a victim is still in contact with the live wire which you cannot immediately switch off, insulate yourself on a dry wood or any other insulating material to release the victim.

(5) Use safety belt before starting the work on an electric pole or tower.

(6) The ladder should always be held by another person while working on overhead lines, so that it may not slip away.

(7) Phase or positive wire should always be connected through the switch.

(8) Before energizing the line, check that there is none working on the main line.

(9) Before replacing the blown fuse, always switch off the main switch.

(10) Before taking a tables fan or portable appliances from one place to another, disconnect , it from the supply.

(11) Do not disconnect the flexible wire of an electrical equipment from the socket by pulling it out.

(12) Do not touch electric installation without any purpose.

(13) Overhead lines should never be touched unless you are sure that it is dead and properly earthed.

(14)  Before starting the work, ensure that you are authorized to do the work

(15) Do not tamper electrical protective
or interlocking gear unless you are authorized.

(16) Safety depends upon good earthing, always keep earth connection in good condition

(17) The battery charging room should be lighted and air.

(18) When preparing an electrolyte, the acid should be added in to the water and not the water to the acid.

(19) Do not charge the battery in a dark room.

(20) In case of fire, do not throw water on a live wire and equipment, it is dangerous. The best remedy is to disconnect the main supply immediately.

(21) The electric fire should be extinguished with liquid carbon dioxide type extinguisher
or dry sand.

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